Editorial Type:
Article Category: Research Article
| Online Publication Date: 26 Nov 2009
Sector-Level Dynamics and Collective Action in the United States, 1965-1975
Sector-Level Dynamics and Collective Action in the United States, 1965-1975
and
Page Range: 293 – 314
To explain varying levels of collective action by social movement organizations in the United States operating during the height of the 1960s protest cycle, this article examines social movement sector-level dynamics alongside indicators of resources and political opportunities. Drawing on hypotheses from neoinstitutional, organizational ecology, and embeddedness perspectives, the paper emphasizes the importance of understanding the sector-level dynamics of legitimacy, competition, and embeddedness when explaining levels of collective action. Results show strong support for neoinstitutional, organizational ecology, and embeddedness theories, but more mixed support for arguments about how political opportunities and resources affect levels of collective action by social movement organizations.
Barranco, José, and Dominique Wisler. 1999. "Validity and Systematicity of Newspaper Data in Event Analysis." European Sociological Review 13(3): 301-22.
Baum, Joel A. C., and Walter W. Powell. 1995. "Cultivating an Institutional Ecology of Organizations." American Sociological Review 60(4): 529-38.
Bearman, Peter S., and Kevin D. Everett. 1993. "The Structure of Social Protest, 1961-1983." Social Networks 15: 171-200.
Brass, Daniel J., Joseph Galaskiewicz, Henrich Greve, and Wenpin Tsai. 2004. "Taking Stock of Networks and Organizations: A Multilevel Perspective." Academy of Management Journal 47(6): 795-817.
Churchill, Ward. 1994. "The Bloody Wake of Alcatraz: Political Repression of the American Indian Movement during the 1970s." American Indian Culture and Research Journal 18: 253-300.
Cress, Daniel M., and David A. Snow. 1996. "Resources, Benefactors, and the Viability of Homeless Social Movement Organizations." American Sociological Review 61: 1089-1109.
Davenport, Christian. 2007. "State Repression and Political Order." Annual Review of Political Science 10: 1-23.
DeNardo, James. 1985. Power in Numbers. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
DiMaggio, Paul J., and Walter W. Powell. 1983. "The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields." American Sociological Review 48: 147-160.
Earl, Jennifer, Andrew Martin, Sarah A. Soule, and John D. McCarthy. 2004. "The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action." Annual Review of Sociology 30: 65-80.
Earl, Jennifer, and Sarah A. Soule. 2006. "Seeing Blue: Going Behind the Baton to Explain Policing at Public Protest Events." Mobilization 11(2): 145-164.
Earl, Jennifer, Sarah A. Soule, and John D. McCarthy. 2003. "Protests Under Fire? Explaining Protest Policing." American Sociological Review 69: 581-606.
Edwards, Robert, and John McCarthy. 2004. "Resources and Social Movement Mobilization." Pp. 116-152 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi. London: Blackwell.
Elsbach, Kimberly D., and Robert I. Sutton. 1992. "Acquiring Organizational Legitimacy Through Illegitimate Actions: A Marriage of Institutional and Impression Management Theories." Academy of Management Journal 35(4): 699-738.
Everett, Kevin D. 1992. "Professionalization and Protest: Changes in the Social Movement Sector, 1961-1983." Social Forces 70(4): 957-75.
Fantasia, Rick. 1988. Cultures of Solidarity: Consciousness, Action and Contemporary American Workers. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Galaskiewicz, Joseph. 1985. "Interorganizational Relations." Annual Review of Sociology 11: 281-304.
Garner, Roberta Ash, and Mayer N. Zald. 1987. "The Political Economy of Social Movement Sectors." Pp. 293-317 in Social Movements in an Organizational Society: Collected Essays, edited by Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Goldstone, Jack A., and Charles Tilly. 2001. "Threat (and Opportunity): Popular Action and State Response in the Dynamics of Contentious Action." Pp. 179-194 in Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics, edited by Ronald R. Aminzade, Jack A. Goldstone, Doug McAdam, Elizabeth J. Perry, William H. Sewell, Jr., Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Granovetter, Mark. 1985. "Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness." American Journal of Sociology 91: 481-510.
Grogger, J. T., and R. T. Carson. 1991. "Models for Truncated Counts." Journal of Applied Econometrics 6: 225-38.
Haines, Herbert H. 1984. "Black Radicalism and the Funding of Civil Rights, 1957-1970." Social Problems 32(1): 31-43.
Hannan, Michael T., and John Freeman. 1989. Organizational Ecology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hannan, Michael T., and Glenn R. Carroll. 1992. Dynamics of Organizational Populations. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hannan, Michael T., Glenn R. Carroll, and László Pólos. 2003. "The Organizational Niche." Sociological Theory 21(4): 309-40.
Hilbe, Joseph. 1998. "TRNBIN0: Stata Module to Estimate Zero-Truncated Negative Binomial Regression." Statistical Software Components S345401, Boston College Department of Economics. Downloaded from http://www.stata.com/users/jhardin
Hirsch, Eric L. 1990. "Sacrifice for the Cause: Group Processes, Recruitment, and Commitment in a Student Social Movement." American Sociological Review 55: 243-54.
Hoover, Dean, and David Kowalewski. 1992. "Dynamic Models of Dissent and Repression." Journal of Conflict Resolution 36: 150-182.
Jenkins, J. Craig. 1998. "Channeling Social Protest: Foundation Patronage of Contemporary Social Movements." Pp. 206-16 in Private Action and the Public Good, edited by Walter W. Powell and Elisabeth S. Clemens. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Jenkins, J. Craig. 1993. Social Movement Philanthropy, 1953-1980. Columbus: Dept. of Sociology, Ohio State University.
Jones, Andrew W., Richard N. Hutchinson, Nella Van Dyke, Leslie Gates, and Michelle Companion. 2001. "Coalition Form and Mobilization Effectiveness in Local Social Movements." Sociological Spectrum 21(2): 207-31.
Kay, Tamara. 2005. "Labor Transnationalism and Global Governance: The Impact of NAFTA on Transnational Labor Relationships in North America." American Journal of Sociology 111(3): 715-58.
Khagram, Sanjeev, James V. Riker, and Kathryn Sikkink. 2002. "From Santiago to Seattle: Transnational Advocacy Groups Restructuring World Politics." Pp. 3-23 in Restructuring World Politics: Transnational Social Movements, Networks, and Norms, edited by Sanjeev Khagram, James V. Riker, and Kathryn Sikkink. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
King, Brayden G., and Sarah A. Soule. 2007. "Social Movements as Extra-institutional Entrepreneurs: The Effect of Protests on Stock Price Returns." Administrative Science Quarterly 52(3): 413-42.
King, Brayden G., Keith Bentele, and Sarah A. Soule. 2007. "Protest and Policy Making: Explaining Fluctuation in Congressional Attention to Rights Issues, 1960-1986." Social Forces 86(1): 137-164.
Kriesi, Hanspeter. 2004. "Political Context and Opportunity." Pp. 67-90 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi. London: Blackwell.
Kriesi, Hanspeter, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni. 1995. New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Lichbach, Mark I., and Ted R. Gurr. 1981. "The Conflict Process: A Formal Model." Journal of Conflict Resolution 25: 3-29.
Long, J. Scott. 1997. Regression Models for Categorical and Limited Dependent Variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Marx, Gary T., and Douglas McAdam. 1994. Collective Behavior and Social Movements. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
McAdam, Doug. 1999. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, 2nd Edition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
McAdam, Doug. 1996. "Political Opportunities: Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, and Future Directions." Pp. 23-40 in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, edited by Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McAdam, Doug. 1995. "‘Initiator’ and ‘Spin-off’ Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles." Pp. 217-39 in Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action, edited by Mark Traugott. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
McAdam, Doug. 1983. "Tactical Innovation and the Pace of Insurgency." American Sociological Review 48: 735-54.
McAdam, Doug, and Yang Su. 2002. "Specifying Protest Dimensions in Predicting Movement Outcomes: Anti-War Protests, Public Opinion, and Congressional Voting, 1965-1973." American Sociological Review 67: 696-721.
McAdam, Doug, and W. Richard Scott. 2005. "Organizations and Movements." Pp. 4-40 in Social Movements and Organizational Theory, Gerald F. Davis, Doug McAdam, W. Richard Scott, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. New York: Cambridge University.
McCarthy, John D., Doug McAdam, and Mayer N. Zald, eds. 1996. Comparative Perspectives in Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McCarthy, John D., and Mayer N. Zald. 1977. "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory." American Journal of Sociology 82: 1212-41.
McPherson, J. Miller. 1983. "An Ecology of Affiliation." American Sociological Review 48: 519-35.
Meyer, David S. 2004. "Protest and Political Opportunities." Annual Review of Sociology. 30: 125-198.
Meyer, David S., and Nancy Whittier. 1994. "Social Movement Spillover." Social Problems 41: 277-98.
Meyer, David S., and Debra Minkoff. 2004. "Conceptualizing Political Opportunity." Social Forces 82(4): 1457-92.
Meyer, John W., and Brian Rowan. 1977. "Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony." American Journal of Sociology 83: 340-63.
Minkoff, Debra C. 1999. "Bending with the Wind: Strategic Change and Adaptation by Women's and Racial Minority Organizations." American Journal of Sociology 6: 1666-1703.
Minkoff, Debra C. 1997. "The Sequencing of Social Movements." American Sociological Review 62: 779-99.
Minkoff, Debra C. 1995. "Interorganizational Influences on the Founding of African American Organizations, 1955-1985." Sociological Forum 10(1): 51-79.
Minkoff, Debra C. 1994. "From Service Provision to Institutional Advocacy: The Shifting Legitimacy of Organizational Forms." Social Forces 72(4): 943-69.
Minkoff, Debra C. 1993. "The Organization of Survival: Women's and Racial-Ethnic Voluntarist and Activist Organizations, 1955-1985." Social Forces 71(4): 887-908.
Morris, Aldon. 1981. "Black Southern Sit-In Movement: An Analysis of Internal Organization." American Sociological Review 46: 744-67.
Mueller, Carol. 1997. "International Press Coverage of East German Protest Events, 1989." American Sociological Review 62: 820-32.
Muller, Edward N., and Erich Weede. 1990. "Cross-National Variation in Political Violence." Journal of Conflict Resolution 34: 624-51.
Oliver, Pamela E., and Gregory M. Maney. 2000. "Political Processes and Local Newspaper Coverage of Protest Events: From Selection Bias to Triadic Interactions." American Journal of Sociology 106(2): 463-505.
Oliver, Pamela E., and Daniel J. Myers. 1999. "How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location, and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Protest Events." American Journal of Sociology 105(1): 38-87.
Olzak, Susan, and Emily Ryo. 2007. "Organization Diversity, Vitality and Outcomes in the Civil Rights Movement." Social Forces 85(4): 1561-91.
Olzak, Susan, and Noah Uhrig. 2001. "The Ecology of Tactical Overlap." American Sociological Review 66: 694-717.
Opp, Karl-Deiter, and Wolfgang Roehl. 1990. "Repression, Micromobilization, and Political Protest." Social Forces 69: 521-47.
Ortiz, David G., Daniel J. Myers, Eugene N. Walls, and Maria-Elena D. Diaz. 2005. "Where Do We Stand with Newspaper Data?" Mobilization 10(3): 397-419.
Osa, Maryjane. 2003. "Networks in Opposition: Linking Organizations through Activists in the Polish People's Republic." Pp. 77-104 in Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action, edited by Mario Diani and Doug McAdam. New York: Oxford University Press.
Osa, Maryjane. 2001. "Mobilizing Structures and Cycles of Protest: Post-Stalinist Contention in Poland, 1954-1959." Mobilization 6(2): 211-31.
Ruef, Martin. 2000. "The Emergence of Organizational Forms: A Community Ecology Approach." American Journal of Sociology 106: 658-714.
Snow, David A, Sarah A. Soule, and Daniel M. Cress. 2005. "Homeless Protest Across 17 U.S. Cities, 1980-1991: Assessment of the Explanatory Utility of Strain, Resource Mobilization, and Political Opportunity Theories." Social Forces 83(3): 1183-1210.
Snyder, David, and William R. Kelly. 1977. "Conflict Intensity, Media Sensitivity and the Validity of Newspaper Data." American Sociological Review 42: 105-123.
Soule, Sarah A. 1997. "The Student Divestment Movement in the United States and Tactical Diffusion: The Shantytown Protest." Social Forces 75: 855-83.
Soule, Sarah A., and Jennifer Earl. 2005. "A Movement Society Evaluated: Collective Protest in the United States, 1960-1986." Mobilization 10(3): 345-64.
Soule, Sarah A., and Brayden King. 2008. "The Impact of Social Movements at Stages of the Policy Process: The Equal Rights Amendment, 1972-1982." American Journal of Sociology 111(6): 1871-1909.
Staggenborg, Suzanne. 1986. "Coalition Work in the Pro-Choice Movement: Organizational and Environmental Opportunities and Obstacles." Social Problems 33(5): 374-90.
Statacorp. 2008. Stata Statistical Software: Release 10. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP.
Steedly, Homer R., and John W. Foley. 1979. "The Success of Protest Groups: Multivariate Analyses." Social Science Research 8: 1-15.
Suchman, Mark. 1995. "Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches." Academy of Management Review 20(3): 571-610.
Tarrow, Sidney. 1994. Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tilly, Charles. 2004. Social Movements, 1768-2004. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
Tilly, Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Van Dyke, Nella, and Sarah A. Soule. 2002. "Structural Social Change and the Mobilizing Effect of Threat: Explaining Levels of Patriot and Militia Organizing in the United States." Social Forces 49(4): 497-520.
Van Dyke, Nella, Sarah A. Soule, Verta Taylor. 2004. "The Targets of Social Movements: Beyond a Focus on the State." Pp 27-51 in Daniel J. Myers and Daniel M. Cress, editors. Authority in Contention. Research in Social Movements, Conflicts, and Change.
Wilson, John. 1973. Introduction to Social Movements. New York: Basic Books.
Zald, Mayer N., and John D. McCarthy. 1980. "Social Movement Industries: Competition and Cooperation among Movement Organizations." Pp. 1-20 in Research in Social Movements, Conflics and Change, Vol. 3, edited by Louis Kriesberg. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.