Editorial Type:
Article Category: Research Article
 | Online Publication Date: 04 Aug 2006
Places of Protest: The Public Forum in Principle and Practice
Places of Protest: The Public Forum in Principle and Practice
and
Page Range: 229 – 247
Protest events occur in historical time and geographical place. In the U.S., some places are now constitutionally privileged with respect to citizen access and free assembly and speech. These venues are known as the traditional commons or the public forum. It is our contention that in recent years (1) these spaces have been shrinking in number, (2) citizens have experienced increasing difficulty in gaining unrestricted access to them, and (3) such venues are no longer where most people typically congregate in large numbers. Nevertheless, as we will show, when citizens gather to express dissenting views toward the government at the turn of the twentieth century they overwhelmingly choose spaces in the public forum to do so.
An, Mildred. 1991. "Free Speech, Post Office Sidewalks, and the Public Forum Doctrine." Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Review.26: 633-48.
Associated Press. 2000. "High Court Opens Malls to Political Groups." June 13.
Austine, Glen R., III. 1982. "Time, Place, and Manner Regulations of Expressive Activities in the Public Forum." Nebraska Law Review.61: 167-186
Barrett, Beth. 2000. "Protest Group Sues City: ACLU, Others Want Access to LAPD's 'Secure Zones.'" The Daily News of Los Angeles, July 1.
Blakley, Edward J., and Mary G. Snyder. 1997. Fortress America: Gated Communities in the United States. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Brown, Clifton. 2003. "City of Augusta is Sued Over Protest at the Masters." New York Times, March 13.
Brown, Jennifer. 2000. "Police Extend Deadline for Protest Pits at GOP Convention." Associated Press, June 15.
Byers, Jack. 1998. "The Privatization of Downtown Public Space: The Emerging Grade-Separated City in North America." Journal of Planning Education and Research17: 189-205.
della Porta, Donatella. 1995. Social Movements, Political Violence and the State: A Comparative Analysis of Italy and Germany. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Earl, Jennifer, Sarah Soule, and John D. McCarthy. 2003. "Protest Under Fire? Explaining the Policing of Protest." American Sociological Review68: 581-606.
Exley Zack. 2000. "Organizing Online. Commentary: How a Former Union Organizer Accidentally Sparked a Nationwide Election Protest Movement, All Via the Internet." Mother Jones Online December 9. http://www.motherjones.com/commentary/columns/2000/12/countercoup.html
Gillham, Patrick. 2003. "Mobilizing for Global Justice: Social Movement Organization Involvement in Three Contentious Episodes, 1999-2001." Ph.D. thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder.
Gillham, Patrick, and Gary Marx. 2000. "Complexity and Irony in Policing and Protesting: The World Trade Organization in Seattle." Social Justice27: 2121-236.
Gillham, Patrick, and Bob Edwards. 2003. "Global Justice Protesters Respond to the September 11th Terrorist Attacks: The Impact of an International Disaster on Demonstrations in Washington, D.C." Pp 483-520 in Beyond September 11th: An Account of Post-Disaster Research, J. Monday, ed. Boulder: University of Colorado Research and Applications Information Center.
Gora, Joel M., David Goldberger, Gary M. Stern, and Morton H. Halperin. 1991. The Right to Protest: The Basic ACLU Guide to Free Expression. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
Greenhouse, Linda. 1994. "High Court Backs Limits on Protest at Abortion Clinic." New York Times, July 1: A1, A16.
Hu, Winnie. 2003. "A Message of Peace on 2 Shirts Touches Off Hostilities at a Mall." New York Times, March 6: B1.
Kayden, Jerold S. 2000. Privately Owned Public Space: The New York Experience. New York: John Wiley.
Kennedy, David J. 1995. "Residential Associations as State Actors: Regulating the Impact of Gated Communities on Nonmembers." The Yale Law Journal105: 761-792.
Kohn, Margaret. 2004. Brave New Neighborhoods: The Privatization of Public Space. New York: Routledge.
Lipsky, Michael. 1968. 'Protest as a Political Resource." American Political Science Review62: 1144-58.
Low, Setha. 2003. Behind the Gates: Life, Security and the Pursuit of Happiness in Fortress America. New York: Routledge.
McAdam, Doug, and Yang Su. 2002. "The War at Home: Anti-War Protests and Congressional Voting, 1965 to 1973." American Sociological Review67: 696-721.
McCarthy, John, Clark McPhail, and Jackie Smith. 1996. "Images of Protest: Dimensions of Selection Bias in Media Coverage of Washington Demonstrations, 1982 and 1991." American Sociological Review61: 478-499.
McCarthy, John D., and Clark McPhail. 1998. "The Institutionalization of Protest in the United States." Pp. 83-110 in The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century. David S. Meyers and Sidney Tarrow, eds. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
McCarthy, John D., Clark McPhail, and John Crist. 1999. "The Diffusion and Adoption of Public Order Management Systems." Pp. 71-94 Social Movements in a Globalizing World. Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht, eds. London: MacMillan Press Ltd.
McPhail, Clark, David Sweingruber, and John D. McCarthy. 1998. "Policing Protest in the U.S.: 1960-1990." Pp. 49-69 in Policing Protest in Contemporary Democracies. Donatella della Porta and Herbert Reiter, eds. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
McPhail, Clark, and John McCarthy. 2005. "Protest Mobilization, Protest Repression and Their Interaction." Pp. 33-57 in Repression and Mobilization. Christian Davenport, Hank Johnston and Carol Muller, eds. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
McPhail, Clark. Forthcoming. Beyond the Madding Crowd: Purposive Actors and the Social Organization of Temporary Gatherings. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
McKenzie, Evan. 1994. Privatopia: Homeowners Associations and the Rise of Residential Private Governments. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press
Mitchell, Don. 1995. "The End of Public Space? People's Park, Definitions of the Public and Democracy." Annals of the Association of American Geographers85: 108-133.
Mitchell, Don. 1997. "The Annihilation of Space by Law: The Roots and Implications of Anti-homeless Laws in the United States." Antipode29: 303-335.
Mitchell, Don. 2003. The Right to the City: Social Justice and the Fight for Public Space. New York: Guilford Press.
Mitchell, Don, and Lynn A. Staeheli. 2005. "Permitting Protest: Parsing the Fine Geography of Dissent in America." International Journal of Urban and Regional Research29: 796-813.
Noakes, John A., Brian V. Kloke, and Patrick F. Gillham. 2005. "Whose Streets? Police and Protester Struggles over Space in Washington, D.C., 29-30 September, 2001." Policing and Society15: 235-254.
Noakes, John, and Patrick Gillham. Forthcoming. "Aspects of the "New Penology" in the Police Response to Major Political Protests in the United States, 1999-2000." In Policing Political Protest After Seattle. Donatella della Porta, Herbert Reiter, and Abby Peterson, eds. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
New York Civil Liberties Union. 2004. "Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the Regulation and Policing of First Amendment Activity at the Republican National Convention of 2004." New York: New York Civil Liberties Union.
Opperwall, Stephen G. 1981. "Shopping for a Public Forum: Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins, Publicly used Private Property, and the Constitutionality of Protected Speech." Santa Clara Law Review21: 801-843.
Paterson, Nancy H. 1982-3. "Since the Meadowlands Sports Complex Is Not a Public Forum, the Prohibition of all Literature Distribution and Fund Solicitation by Outside Organizations Does Not Violate the First Amendment." Villanova Law Review.28: 741-764.
Pennington, Bill. 2003. "Burk Expects Fight Over Protests." New York Times, February 25: C15, 18.
Pennsylvania State Association of County Fairs. 2004. "2002 PA County Fairs Statistics." Gartz, PA: Pennsylvania State Association of County Fairs
Post, Robert C. 1987. "Between Governance Management: The History and Theory of the Public Forum." UCLA Law Review34: 1718-1835.
Rangel, Charles B. 2003. "T-Shirts at a Mall." New York Times, March 12.
Robertson, Tatsha. 2004. "Activists Fight to Protest at Conventions." Boston Globe, June 6.
Rochford, E. Burke, Jr. 1991. Hare Krishna in America. New Burnswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Rybczynski, Witold. 1993. "The New Downtowns." The Atlantic Monthly May: 98-106.
Sahid, Joseph. 1969. Rights in Concord: Task Force Report to the National [Eisenhower] Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. Washington, DC: U.S. Government printing Office.
Sewell, William H., Jr. 2001. "Space in Contentious Politics." Pp. 51-88 in Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics. Ronald R. Aminzade, Jack A. Goldstone, Doug McAdam, Elizabeth J. Perry, William H. Sewell, Jr., Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, eds. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, Jackie. 2001. "Globalizing Resistance: The Battle of Seattle and the Future of Social Movements." Mobilization6: 1-20.
Smolla, Rodney A. 1992. Free Speech in an Open Society. New York: Knopf.
Tilly, Charles. 2000. "Spaces of Contention." Mobilization8: 153-159.
Tribe, Laurence H. 1988. American Constitutional Law. 2nd ed. Mineola, NY: Foundation Press.
Wagman, Robert J. 1991. The First Amendment Book. New York: World Almanac.
Walker, Samuel. 1990. In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU. New York: Oxford University Press.
Waldron, Jeremy. 1991. "Homelessness and the Issue of Freedom." UCLA Law Review39: 295-332.
Walsh, Rebecca. 2001. "Nation Watching Main St. Suit." The Salt Lake Tribune, November 13: B1.
Weiszer, Marc. 2003. "Iowa Keeps Penn State Winless in the Conference." Centre Daily Times, February 6: 1B.
Whyte, William H. 1980. The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation.
Whyte, William H. 1988. City: Rediscovering the Center. New York: Doubleday.
Wilson-Doenges, Georheanna. 2000. "An Exploration of Sense of Community and Fear of Crime in Gated Communities." Environment and Behavior32: 597-611.
Zukin, Sharon. 1995. The Culture of Cities. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.